Author : Sascha Grunert
The Kubernetes community has been signing their container image-based artifacts since release v1.24. While the graduation of the corresponding enhancementfrom alpha to beta in v1.26 introduced signatures for the binary artifacts, other projects followed the approach by providing image signatures for their releases, too. This means that they either create the signatures within their own CI/CD pipelines, for example by using GitHub actions, or rely on the Kubernetes image promotion process to automatically sign the images by proposing pull requests to the k/k8s.io repository. A requirement for using this process is that the project is part of the kubernetes orkubernetes-sigs GitHub organization, so that they can utilize the community infrastructure for pushing images into staging buckets.
Assuming that a project now produces signed container image artifacts, how can one actually verify the signatures? It is possible to do it manually like outlined in the official Kubernetes documentation. The problem with this approach is that it involves no automation at all and should be only done for testing purposes. In production environments, tools like the sigstore policy-controller can help with the automation. These tools provide a higher level API by using Custom Resource Definitions (CRD) as well as an integrated admission controller and webhook to verify the signatures.
The general usage flow for an admission controller based verification is:
A key benefit of this architecture is simplicity: A single instance within the cluster validates the signatures before any image pull can happen in the container runtime on the nodes, which gets initiated by the kubelet. This benefit also brings along the issue of separation: The node which should pull the container image is not necessarily the same node that performs the admission. This means that if the controller is compromised, then a cluster-wide policy enforcement can no longer be possible.
One way to solve this issue is doing the policy evaluation directly within theContainer Runtime Interface (CRI) compatible container runtime. The runtime is directly connected to the kubelet on a node and does all the tasks like pulling images. CRI-O is one of those available runtimes and will feature full support for container image signature verification in v1.28.
How does it work? CRI-O reads a file called policy.json, which contains all the rules defined for container images. For example, you can define a policy which only allows signed images quay.io/crio/signed for any tag or digest like this:
{
"default": [{ "type": "reject" }],
"transports": {
"docker": {
"quay.io/crio/signed": [
{
"type": "sigstoreSigned",
"signedIdentity": { "type": "matchRepository" },
"fulcio": {
"oidcIssuer": "https://github.com/login/oauth",
"subjectEmail": "[email protected]",
"caData": "LS0tLS1CRUdJTiBDRVJUSUZJQ0FURS0tLS0tCk1JSUI5ekNDQVh5Z0F3SUJBZ0lVQUxaTkFQRmR4SFB3amVEbG9Ed3lZQ2hBTy80d0NnWUlLb1pJemowRUF3TXcKS2pFVk1CTUdBMVVFQ2hNTWMybG5jM1J2Y21VdVpHVjJNUkV3RHdZRFZRUURFd2h6YVdkemRHOXlaVEFlRncweQpNVEV3TURjeE16VTJOVGxhRncwek1URXdNRFV4TXpVMk5UaGFNQ294RlRBVEJnTlZCQW9UREhOcFozTjBiM0psCkxtUmxkakVSTUE4R0ExVUVBeE1JYzJsbmMzUnZjbVV3ZGpBUUJnY3Foa2pPUFFJQkJnVXJnUVFBSWdOaUFBVDcKWGVGVDRyYjNQUUd3UzRJYWp0TGszL09sbnBnYW5nYUJjbFlwc1lCcjVpKzR5bkIwN2NlYjNMUDBPSU9aZHhleApYNjljNWlWdXlKUlErSHowNXlpK1VGM3VCV0FsSHBpUzVzaDArSDJHSEU3U1hyazFFQzVtMVRyMTlMOWdnOTJqCll6QmhNQTRHQTFVZER3RUIvd1FFQXdJQkJqQVBCZ05WSFJNQkFmOEVCVEFEQVFIL01CMEdBMVVkRGdRV0JCUlkKd0I1ZmtVV2xacWw2ekpDaGt5TFFLc1hGK2pBZkJnTlZIU01FR0RBV2dCUll3QjVma1VXbFpxbDZ6SkNoa3lMUQpLc1hGK2pBS0JnZ3Foa2pPUFFRREF3TnBBREJtQWpFQWoxbkhlWFpwKzEzTldCTmErRURzRFA4RzFXV2cxdENNCldQL1dIUHFwYVZvMGpoc3dlTkZaZ1NzMGVFN3dZSTRxQWpFQTJXQjlvdDk4c0lrb0YzdlpZZGQzL1Z0V0I1YjkKVE5NZWE3SXgvc3RKNVRmY0xMZUFCTEU0Qk5KT3NRNHZuQkhKCi0tLS0tRU5EIENFUlRJRklDQVRFLS0tLS0="
},
"rekorPublicKeyData": "LS0tLS1CRUdJTiBQVUJMSUMgS0VZLS0tLS0KTUZrd0V3WUhLb1pJemowQ0FRWUlLb1pJemowREFRY0RRZ0FFMkcyWSsydGFiZFRWNUJjR2lCSXgwYTlmQUZ3cgprQmJtTFNHdGtzNEwzcVg2eVlZMHp1ZkJuaEM4VXIvaXk1NUdoV1AvOUEvYlkyTGhDMzBNOStSWXR3PT0KLS0tLS1FTkQgUFVCTElDIEtFWS0tLS0tCg=="
}
]
}
}
}
CRI-O has to be started to use that policy as the global source of truth:
> sudo crio --log-level debug --signature-policy ./policy.json
CRI-O is now able to pull the image while verifying its signatures. This can be done by using crictl (cri-tools), for example:
> sudo crictl -D pull quay.io/crio/signed
DEBU[…] get image connection
DEBU[…] PullImageRequest: &PullImageRequest{Image:&ImageSpec{Image:quay.io/crio/signed,Annotations:map[string]string{},},Auth:nil,SandboxConfig:nil,}
DEBU[…] PullImageResponse: &PullImageResponse{ImageRef:quay.io/crio/signed@sha256:18b42e8ea347780f35d979a829affa178593a8e31d90644466396e1187a07f3a,}
Image is up to date for quay.io/crio/signed@sha256:18b42e8ea347780f35d979a829affa178593a8e31d90644466396e1187a07f3a
The CRI-O debug logs will also indicate that the signature got successfully validated:
DEBU[…] IsRunningImageAllowed for image docker:quay.io/crio/signed:latest
DEBU[…] Using transport "docker" specific policy section quay.io/crio/signed
DEBU[…] Reading /var/lib/containers/sigstore/crio/signed@sha256=18b42e8ea347780f35d979a829affa178593a8e31d90644466396e1187a07f3a/signature-1
DEBU[…] Looking for sigstore attachments in quay.io/crio/signed:sha256-18b42e8ea347780f35d979a829affa178593a8e31d90644466396e1187a07f3a.sig
DEBU[…] GET https://quay.io/v2/crio/signed/manifests/sha256-18b42e8ea347780f35d979a829affa178593a8e31d90644466396e1187a07f3a.sig
DEBU[…] Content-Type from manifest GET is "application/vnd.oci.image.manifest.v1+json"
DEBU[…] Found a sigstore attachment manifest with 1 layers
DEBU[…] Fetching sigstore attachment 1/1: sha256:8276724a208087e73ae5d9d6e8f872f67808c08b0acdfdc73019278807197c45
DEBU[…] Downloading /v2/crio/signed/blobs/sha256:8276724a208087e73ae5d9d6e8f872f67808c08b0acdfdc73019278807197c45
DEBU[…] GET https://quay.io/v2/crio/signed/blobs/sha256:8276724a208087e73ae5d9d6e8f872f67808c08b0acdfdc73019278807197c45
DEBU[…] Requirement 0: allowed
DEBU[…] Overall: allowed
All of the defined fields like oidcIssuer and subjectEmail in the policy have to match, while fulcio.caData and rekorPublicKeyData are the public keys from the upstream fulcio (OIDC PKI) and rekor (transparency log) instances.
This means that if you now invalidate the subjectEmail of the policy, for example to[email protected]:
> jq '.transports.docker."quay.io/crio/signed"[0].fulcio.subjectEmail = "[email protected]"' policy.json > new-policy.json
> mv new-policy.json policy.json
Then remove the image, since it already exists locally:
> sudo crictl rmi quay.io/crio/signed
Now when you pull the image, CRI-O complains that the required email is wrong:
> sudo crictl pull quay.io/crio/signed
FATA[…] pulling image: rpc error: code = Unknown desc = Source image rejected: Required email [email protected] not found (got []string{"[email protected]"})
It is also possible to test an unsigned image against the policy. For that you have to modify the key quay.io/crio/signed to something likequay.io/crio/unsigned:
> sed -i 's;quay.io/crio/signed;quay.io/crio/unsigned;' policy.json
If you now pull the container image, CRI-O will complain that no signature exists for it:
> sudo crictl pull quay.io/crio/unsigned
FATA[…] pulling image: rpc error: code = Unknown desc = SignatureValidationFailed: Source image rejected: A signature was required, but no signature exists
It is important to mention that CRI-O will match the.critical.identity.docker-reference field within the signature to match with the image repository. For example, if you verify the imageregistry.k8s.io/kube-apiserver-amd64:v1.28.0-alpha.3, then the correspondingdocker-reference should be registry.k8s.io/kube-apiserver-amd64:
> cosign verify registry.k8s.io/kube-apiserver-amd64:v1.28.0-alpha.3 \
--certificate-identity [email protected] \
--certificate-oidc-issuer https://accounts.google.com \
| jq -r '.[0].critical.identity."docker-reference"'
…
registry.k8s.io/kubernetes/kube-apiserver-amd64
The Kubernetes community introduced registry.k8s.io as proxy mirror for various registries. Before the release of kpromo v4.0.2, images had been signed with the actual mirror rather than registry.k8s.io:
> cosign verify registry.k8s.io/kube-apiserver-amd64:v1.28.0-alpha.2 \
--certificate-identity [email protected] \
--certificate-oidc-issuer https://accounts.google.com \
| jq -r '.[0].critical.identity."docker-reference"'
…
asia-northeast2-docker.pkg.dev/k8s-artifacts-prod/images/kubernetes/kube-apiserver-amd64
The change of the docker-reference to registry.k8s.io makes it easier for end users to validate the signatures, because they cannot know anything about the underlying infrastructure being used. The feature to set the identity on image signing has been added to cosign via the flag sign --sign-container-identity as well and will be part of its upcoming release.
The Kubernetes image pull error code SignatureValidationFailed got recently added to Kubernetes and will be available from v1.28. This error code allows end-users to understand image pull failures directly from the kubectl CLI. For example, if you run CRI-O together with Kubernetes using the policy which requiresquay.io/crio/unsigned to be signed, then a pod definition like this:
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
name: pod
spec:
containers:
- name: container
image: quay.io/crio/unsigned
Will cause the SignatureValidationFailed error when applying the pod manifest:
> kubectl apply -f pod.yaml
pod/pod created
> kubectl get pods
NAME READY STATUS RESTARTS AGE
pod 0/1 SignatureValidationFailed 0 4s
> kubectl describe pod pod | tail -n8
Type Reason Age From Message
---- ------ ---- ---- -------
Normal Scheduled 58s default-scheduler Successfully assigned default/pod to 127.0.0.1
Normal BackOff 22s (x2 over 55s) kubelet Back-off pulling image "quay.io/crio/unsigned"
Warning Failed 22s (x2 over 55s) kubelet Error: ImagePullBackOff
Normal Pulling 9s (x3 over 58s) kubelet Pulling image "quay.io/crio/unsigned"
Warning Failed 6s (x3 over 55s) kubelet Failed to pull image "quay.io/crio/unsigned": SignatureValidationFailed: Source image rejected: A signature was required, but no signature exists
Warning Failed 6s (x3 over 55s) kubelet Error: SignatureValidationFailed
This overall behavior provides a more Kubernetes native experience and does not rely on third party software to be installed in the cluster.
There are still a few corner cases to consider: For example, what if you want to allow policies per namespace in the same way the policy-controller supports it? Well, there is an upcoming CRI-O feature in v1.28 for that! CRI-O will support the --signature-policy-dir / signature_policy_dir option, which defines the root path for pod namespace-separated signature policies. This means that CRI-O will lookup that path and assemble a policy like <SIGNATURE_POLICY_DIR>/<NAMESPACE>.json, which will be used on image pull if existing. If no pod namespace is provided on image pull (via the sandbox config), or the concatenated path is non-existent, then CRI-O's global policy will be used as fallback.
Another corner case to consider is critical for the correct signature verification within container runtimes: The kubelet only invokes container image pulls if the image does not already exist on disk. This means that an unrestricted policy from Kubernetes namespace A can allow pulling an image, while namespace B is not able to enforce the policy because it already exits on the node. Finally, CRI-O has to verify the policy not only on image pull, but also on container creation. This fact makes things even a bit more complicated, because the CRI does not really pass down the user specified image reference on container creation, but an already resolved image ID, or digest. A small change to the CRI can help with that.
Now that everything happens within the container runtime, someone has to maintain and define the policies to provide a good user experience around that feature. The CRDs of the policy-controller are great, while we could imagine that a daemon within the cluster can write the policies for CRI-O per namespace. This would make any additional hook obsolete and moves the responsibility of verifying the image signature to the actual instance which pulls the image. I evaluated other possible paths toward a better container image signature verification within plain Kubernetes, but I could not find a great fit for a native API. This means that I believe that a CRD is the way to go, but users still need an instance which actually serves it.
Thank you for reading this blog post! If you're interested in more, providing feedback or asking for help, then feel free to get in touch with me directly viaSlack (#crio) or the SIG Node mailing list.
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